Chapter No: 1
Digestive System Consist of two group of organs
Alimentary Canal
Accessary Canal
The alimentary canal consist of continuous tube of extending from mouth to anus, mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine.
The Accessary digestive organ include teeth, liver, gall bladder and pancreas.
Saliva starts the chemical digestion of Carbohydrates.
In oesophagus, No digestion take place here.
Stomach is J-shaped muscular bag.
The walls of Stomach release gastric juice.
The enzyme converts large protein into small protein molecules.
HCL soften the food and also kills the germs which are present in food.
Gastric juice start the chemical digestion of food.
Bolus is converted into semi liquid food called chime.
The average of small intestine is 6 meter.
Bile is greenish brown juice, secreted by liver and stored in gall bladder.
Absorption is only occur in small intestine.
Glucose used in respiration process.
The average of large intestine is 1.5 meter.
All Non diffusible components of food move towards rectum.
Constipation is reverse process of Diarrhea.
Glucose + oxygen Co2 + H20 + Energy
Breathing is a physical process
Burning is a chemical process.
Taking of Oxygen is called inhalation
Given out of carbon di oxide is called exhalation.
Alveoli have a microscopic structure consisting of single cellular layer.
T.B is a disorder of lower respiratory system.
An infectious bacterial disease caused by Mycobacterium T.B.
Pharynx swallows the food.
Large intestine absorbs water & minerals.
Rectum stores faeces.
Gall bladder stores bile.
Pancreas digests carbohydrates , fats & protein
Chapter No: 2
The supply of food, water and collection of waste materials such as C02 from our body is called Transportation.
The main function of vessels is to transport blood throughout the body.
Arteries take blood away from the heart.
Arteries divide into very tiny blood vessels called capillaries.
The thin walls of capillaries allow the exchange of oxygen, water and nutrients from blood to cell.
All veins except pulmonary vein takes de oxygenated blood with less food and more carbon di oxide towards heart.
The heart is hollow cone shaped and muscular organ.
Two third of heart located to left.
One third is located to right.
The main purpose of heart is to pump blood around the body.
The normal value of human blood pressure is 120/80 mm Hg.
Blood pressure is measured by Sphygmomanometer.
Heart normally pulse 72 time pulse per minute.
Heart is separated by four chambers by right and left sections by septum.
The right side of heart received de-Oxygenated blood from all parts of body and pumps the blood towards lungs.
The left side of heart receives Oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps the blood to all parts of body.
The two smaller upper chambers with thin walls receives blood through veins are called Atria.
The two lower chambers with thick walls receives blood through atria are called Ventricles.
Right atrium receives de-oxygenated blood from superior Vena & inferior Vena Cava (collects blood from lower parts of the body.
Blood never flows back towards atria because of Valves.
Two valves are present b/w atria and ventricles
Other two valves lie b/w ventricles and arties.
When both atria contract then blood moves to the right and left ventricles through Tricuspid and Bicuspid (Mitral) valves.
At rest our blood heart beats about 70 to 75 times per minute.
Pulmonary artery takes de-oxygenated bloods towards lungs for purification.
Lungs purify blood by diffusing Oxygen from the inhaled air and release carbon di oxide in the exhaled air.
Hypertension may also cause brain stroke and hemorrhage.
Diet quality is strongly related to disease of circulatory system in human.
Hyper tension is also known as High blood pressure.
It is chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently increase.
Angina is chest pain that occurs if an area of heart muscle does not get enough oxygen rich blood.
Heart attack can be diagnosed by d/f tests such as Electrocardiogram (ECG), blood test and Eco - Cardiography.
In diabetes Sugar level is High.
Diabetes causes excessive thrust and large amount of Urine.
Heart attack is scientifically known as Myocardial infarction.
Blood Sugar level is maintained through insulin injections in diabetes patients.
Transplantation is the replacement of a dysfunctional organ with healthy one.
An artificial heart maintains the patient’s heart blood circulation.
Norman Shumway from USA is a father of Heart transplantation.
Developed artificial heart program in 1964.
Successfully implanted artificial heart in 1969.
Xylem transport water and minerals from roots to leaves via stem.
Phloem transports sugar produced in leaves to all parts of plant.
Water absorption take place through root hair.
Water enters into the root hair from soil by osmosis.
Chapter No: 3
The transfer of pollen grains from another of a flower to the stigma of same or another flower is called pollination.
In self-pollination, mature pollen grains transfer from another one of flower to the stigma of the same flower or another flower of same plant. It means only one plant is involved.
In cross pollination, mature pollen grains from another of one flower are transferred to the stigma of flower on another plant of same kind. Flowers of two parts of same kind are involved.
In self-pollination only one plant is involved.
In self-pollination only one flower is involved.
In cross pollination two or more than two plants of the same kind are involved.
In self-pollination, does not produce new variety of plant.
In cross pollination two flower involves.
In cross pollination produces new variety of plants.
The wind blows and carries pollen grains from another to stigma.
Flowers of cereal crops are mainly pollinated by wind.
Plants growing near ponds, river and streams are pollinated by water.
Mostly coconut growing on river banks are pollinated by water.
Plants that contain big bright colored and scented petal flowers are pollinated by insects.
As these flowers secrete nectar.
They help in cross pollination by sticking pollen grains with their legs and wings.
Plants in garden are usually pollinated by insects as they have bright colored petals and nectar cause an attraction for them.
Animals like birds, bats, squirrels work as pollination agent.
Pollen grains stick their feathers or fur and get transferred to another flower when they move from plant to plant.
Fruit plants are mostly pollinated by animals as they eat them and through their seed to distance.
When sex cells are involved in the production of offspring then this type of reproduction is called sexual.
Flowers perform sexual reproduction.
Biological name of sex cells (VOMU).
Male gametes are small size are compared to female.
When sex cells are not involved in the production of offspring then this type of reproduction is called asexual.
Roots, stem and leaves also produce their offspring through a sexual reproduction.
In sexual two parents are involved.
In sexual, sex cells are involved.
In sexual does not produce large number of offspring.
In asexual only one parent is involved.
In asexual no cells are involved.
The process in which fusion of male & female sex cell occur to develop a new plant is called fertilizers.
Fertilization is an important process of sexual reproduction.
Ovary contains Ovules in which egg sex cell is present.
Pollen tube open inside the ovary where sperms fuse with the egg cell and form Zygote.
The zygote undergoes repetitive cell division and develops into an embryo inside Ovule.
Chapter NO: 4
When organism (biotic) interact with Non-living things (abiotic) in an environment they form ecological system or eco system.
Natural home of an organism where it lives and reproduce its Habitat.
Abiotic components consist of air, water, soil, light and temperature.
Biotic components consist of producers, consumers, decomposers.
The living organism which live in aquatic environment surrounded by water is called aquatic habitat.
Water contains high amount of salt is marine water habitat.
Water contains low amount of salt is fresh water.
Area where river meet with sea is estuarine water habitat.
Organisms living on land obtain their resources from soil, land and air is Terrestrial habitat.
Forest is land where rainfall is high 250 t0 450 mm annually.
Habitat where rainfall is lower than forest so it does not support growth of trees.
Area where rainfall is very low is desert.
Area below ice caps which are very cold regions is Tundra i.e. Antarctica.
Palm trees grow near coastal areas and pines at high altitude.
Climate change is caused by factor such as biotic process.
Most of living organisms are active at temperature in b/w 0c to 45C.
Organisms living at below 0C temp to have adopted the fur on their skin.
On October 08, 2005 & recently on Oct 26, 2015 large spread of Pakistan was damaged due to massive earth quake.
Reptiles are cold blooded animals.
Aquatic animals and marine plants can active at freezing temp -1C.
Algae can grow in water having temp up to 80 C.
The feeding relationship among organism is called food chain.
Food chain always begin with Producer.
Animals eat plants so they are Consumer
In an ecosystem several food chains overlap to form a network called Food Web.
Chapter No: 5
Water is colorless, Odour less, germ free.
Green plants need water for photosynthesis.
Water is only natural substance found in three states.
70% of fresh water is used in irrigation.
20% fresh water is used in industrial.
10% fresh water is used in Domestic.
64% rural population does not have access to drinkable water.
Water is boiled for 15-20 m kill disease causing microbes.
Potash alum is used to clean water by sticking physical impurities.
Ultraviolet rays to purify water for drinking & medical uses.
NaDCC (Sodium dichloroisocyanurate) or Hal zone tablets are used to clean water by sticking physical impurities together.
Water can cleaning through filtration, chlorination, distillation.
Removing suspended sand particles and impurities from water through Filtration.
Chlorination is another way to kill harmful microorganism from water.
Distillation is used to remove dissolved physical and chemical impurities from water. These impurities remove through condensing & evaporating.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a water purification that uses semipermeable membrane ions, molecules.
Approximately 6913 megawatt of electricity is produced by d/f hydro power plant.
In daily life 12% water for drinking, cooking, 25% in washing, 56% is used in bathrooms, toilets.
2% water is used for plants in home.
5% is wasted through leakage.
Surface water of salt water is 97%.
Fresh water is 3%.
Chapter No: 6
An atom is an extremely small particles of matter that cannot be subdivide by ordinary means. The atoms of d/f elements have different size.
Each atom is made up of small particles called “Sub atomic particles”.
Atoms have equal number of protons and electrons.
All atoms have small dense positively charged nucleus in their centers.
All the mass or weight of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus due to presence of neutron & proton.
Proton is 1836 time heavier than electron.
Nucleus is much smaller than atom as whole.
Proton has positive charge, its mass is 1 amu.
The number of protons in an atom is always equal to number of electrons.
Neutron has no charge, proton & neutron have almost same mass. They are collectively called nucleons.
Electron are arranged in shells around nucleus.
The electron have negative charge.
An atom has the same number of electrons & proton.
The specific number of protons present in the nucleus of every atom is called its atomic number.
Atomic number represented by “Z”.
Number of proton is equal to number of electron in an atom atomic number.
Sum of protons and neutrons is called mass number (Atomic mass).
A = Z + N (formula for finding atomic mass).
N = A - Z (formula for finding Neutron).
In periodic table, row is considered as period.
In periodic table, columns from top to bottom is called groups.
In periodic table, seven periods & 8 groups.
Valency is the power of combining of an atom with other atoms to form molecules or compound.
The tendency to lose or gain an electron is also called valency.
Sodium valency is 1 because it lose one electron.
Chlorine valency is 1 because it gain one electron.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite paths called orbits (2n2 ).
K shell is closest to nucleus. K=2, L=8, M=18.
Gain or loss of an electron is called ion.
Atoms which lose electrons is called anion and are known as cations.
The size of cations is smaller than that of its parent neutral atom.
Atom which gain electron will become negatively charged from negative ion which is called anion.
The size of an ion is greater than that of its parent neutral atom.
The atoms of same element which have the same atomic number but different mass number are known as Isotopes.
Hydrogen has three isotopes. (Protium, Deuterium, Tritium).
The isotopes of carbon C-12, C-13, C-14.
A molecule is formed when two or more same or different atoms join together chemically i.e. O2, Cl2, H 2O.
Compound is a molecule that contains atoms of at least two different elements.
The symbolic formula / representation of molecule or compound is called chemical formula.
Relative mass of electron is zero.
Relative mass of neutron is one.
Relative mass of proton is one.
Chapter No: 7
Physical change is change in physical appearance or state of substance.
Change in shape or size is called physical change.
Physical change is reversible.
You can easily separate salt from water by evaporation.
Change in states, dissolving sugar in water.
Chemical change a substance is transferred into different substance with new composition.
Chemical change is irreversible.
Burning of fuel, rusting of iron is an example of chemical change.
The substance that are added into soil to make up deficiency of nutrients are called fertilizer.
A low density of fertilizer will take up more space than the same weight of high density.
Fertilizers are produced by chemical reaction.
Ammonium nitrate is produced by reaction of ammonia with nitric acid.
The top layer of fertile is Soil.
Chemical process which changes vegetable oil into fat is called Hydrogenation.
Vegetable oil + Hydrogen Fat (Banaspati ghee).
Hydrogenation process is used for changing Oil into banaspati ghee.
Plastics are very large molecules called polymers which are made from many smaller molecule called monomers.
When fuel is burned Methane gas (CH4) is produced.
Burning of wood is a chemical change.
Chapter No: 8
The motion of atoms and molecules results in the formation of energy called heat energy.
Heat is the total energy of molecular motion in a substance.
Degree of hotness or coldness is called temperature.
Heat energy is transferred from one object to another. Transfer is due to the difference in temperature.
Losing or gaining heat due to difference of temperature in two bodies or systems are called transfer of heat.
There are three modes of heat transformation. (Conduction, Convection, Radiation).
Conduction does occur only in solids.
Metals are the good conductor of heat.
Nonmetals are the bad conductor of heat.
Transfer of heat from high temperature to low temperature.
The molecules in conduction is very close to each other and tightly packed in solids.
In solids they move around fixed positions in the form of vibration.
Convection occurs due to movement of fluids molecules.
Convection occurs in atmosphere due to sea and land breeze are blowing. It also helps the birds to glide in air for hours easily.
Radiation is the transfer of heat through waves.
Heat transferring by radiation does not need any medium.
We receive sun heat through the process of radiation.
Dull black surfaces are good absorber and good radiators of heat.
Shiny surfaces are poor absorbers and good radiators of heat.
Vacuum flask is the invention most commonly used in our daily life to reduce heat transfer by any mode.
In vacuum flask, hot things kept in vacuum flask do not become cold and cold ones do not become hot for long time.
Refrigerator & air conditioner works on the phenomenon of convection of heat transfer.
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of sea water.
Chapter No: 9
Change in the speed and direction of light rays due to change of medium is called refraction of light.
When a light ray travels from a rare medium into denser medium it’s refracted towards normal.
When ray of light enters into rare medium from a denser medium it’s refracted away from the normal.
The density of medium, changes both the speed and direction of light rays.
The light travels fastest in the vacuum.
In light rays direction also changes on entering a denser medium.
Laws of refraction are also known as Snell’s laws, names after scientist Wile brord Snell who discovered these laws in 1621.
There are two laws of refraction.
(a).The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same place.
(b).The ratio b/w speed of light in vacuum and its speed in another medium is constant.
Refractive index is symbolized as “n”.
Refractive index=speed of light in vacuum / speed of light in medium
Critical angle (c) is the angle of incidence for which angle of refraction is 90 degree.
The angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence.
Refracted light rays become parallel to the surface of refracting medium.
Total internal reflection of the light occurs when the angle of incidence of the refracted light rays is greater than critical angle.
The angle of incidence of all the rays will be greater than the angle of refraction.
Mirage and fish eye view are the two application of the total internal reflection of light.
Binocular and periscope also work on the principle of total internal of reflection.
The splitting of light into its constituent components is called dispersion of light.
The bend of seven colors is called spectrum.
Red, blue and green are called primary colors.
The color of an opaque or non-luminous object is the color of light reflects.
White objects reflects all the seven color of light while black objects absorbs all the seven colors.
Critical angle of water is 48.8
Chapter No: 10
Sound waves travel through solids, liquids and gases at different speed.
Sound waves are transverse waves in solid.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves in liquids and gases.
Longitudinal waves are parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
Longitudinal waves have rarefaction and compression.
Transverse waves are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Transverse waves have crests and troughs.
The speed and audibility of sound also depends on the molecular movements of its medium.
In transverse wave, the wave length is the distance b/w its two adjacent crests or troughs.
Wave length is symbolized by lambda. It is measured in meter.
The distance b/w rest position of the moving particles to the top of crests or the bottom of trough is termed as Amplitude.
Amplitude is measured in meter as well as decibel of sound pressure.
The number of vibrations produced by a vibrating body in a second is called frequency.
Frequency is measured in Hertz.
The distance covered by sound wave in a unit time is called its speed.
Speed is measured in meter per second.
Light waves travel faster as compared to sound waves.
Sound travels fastest in diamond & slowest in air.
The quality of sound depends on the properties of medium.
Pitch is the highness and lowness of sound that is determined by the rate of vibration or frequency of sound.
High frequency of sound waves into high pitched (thin sound).
Low frequency of sound waves into low pitched (heavy sound).
The degree of the sensation of sound produced in human ear is called loudness.
Loudness basically depends on the amplitude of sound waves.
Pitch and loudness determine the quality and intensity of sound.
Audible sound refers to the sound that can be heard.
Chapter No: 11
The rate of flow of charge at certain point is called current.
The movement of free electrons is called electric current.
Electric current is measured in ampere. (I=q/t).
If all the components are connected one after another in single path then it is a series circuit.
If the components are connected in two or more loops then it is a parallel circuit.
The circuits in most business and homes are connected in parallel.
Energy is the ability to do work and electricity is a kind of energy.
A series circuit uses minimum amount of wire.
Thomas Edison invented the electric bulb 1879, he developed the first power plant to distribute the electricity in New York in 1880.
Potential difference b/w two points in a circuit is called voltage.
Potential difference is measured in volts (v).
Resistance is the hindrance to flow of current.
The resistance of wire depends on length of the wire and thickness of wire.
Longer wire have more resistance than short wire and thin wires have more resistance than thick wires.
The unit of resistance is Ohm.
In 1827, a German scientist George Simon ohm discovered relationship b/w voltage and current in an electric circuit is called ohms law.
R=Voltage/Current, R=V/I or V=IR
Current through conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference or voltage applied across conductor & inversely proportional to the resistance.
Resistance is a ratio of voltage to current.
Human body is a good conductor of electricity because it contains large amount of water and other liquids.
Safety devices are given below.
Fuse
Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs).
Earth wires
Three pin plug
Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB).
Chapter No: 12
The universe is everything we can see, touch, feel, sense, measure or detect.
The space b/w the stars and galaxies is large empty.
According to scientist universe began to exist about 13.7 billion years ago.
The complete size of universe is difficult to imagine.
Big Bang theory, the universe began to exist as a single point, unimaginably hotter and denser than anything and it has been expanding ever since.
Due to expansion of universe, the conditions in the universe have changed from small to big, from hot to cold and from young to old.
Origin of universe is called Big Bang theory.
In 1917, Dutch astronomer Willen de sitter used Einstein theory to describe an expanding universe.
Alexander Friedman mathematically proved the idea of expanding universe.
In 1920, the Belgian astronomer George Lemaitre concluded that if the universe were indeed expanding and has been doing as long as its existence.
The most convincing evidence confirming the big bang theory is the Cosmic Micro wave background radiations.
In 1992, NASA launched the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) Satellite and its purpose to study of Cosmic Micro wave background radiations.
Light is the fastest thing in the universe.
Stars are huge balls of gas in outer space made from hydrogen, helium and other elements producing light, heat and other form of energy.
Our sun is also a star and is closest star to earth.
The next star to earth is known as “Alpha” Centauri. It is about 4.3 light years away from earth.
Light year is the unit of distance.
The closest stars are the red stars and their temperature is around 3000 Centigrade.
The sun has temperature around 6000 C & glows orange/yellow.
The blue stars, which are the hottest, having temperature more than 25000 C.
A hotter star gives of more energy than a cooler star.
If two stars having the same temperature but differ in size then the larger star gives of more light than the smaller star.
Space is not a perfect vacuum. Dust and gas b/w stars can absorb and scatter star light leading to reduction in brightness.
Galaxy is a vast collection of stars, gas, dust and other forms of matter which are bound together gravitationally as a unit.
There are 50 to 100 billion galaxies of different shape and kind in the universe.
The earth is the part of of galaxy called the Milky Way.
In 1920, Edwin Hubble devoted his life to studying about galaxies.
According to this sequence galaxies are generally grouped by their appearance into spiral, elliptical, lenticular and irregular.
An elliptical galaxy appears to be an oval shaped from our point of view as seen from the telescope.
The Milky Way is the galaxy we live in.
The disk of the way is about 100,000 light years across and 1000 light year thick.
Earth and the sun are about 25,000 light years away from the center of Milky Way.
Parallax is the apparent displacement of an object because of change in the observer’s point of view.
Life stages of a star are Proto-star, main sequence, red giant, planetary-nebula and white dwarf.
Black hole is a region of space where matter has collapsed in on itself.
Nebulae are made up of 97% of hydrogen and 3% of helium.
“Proto” means “early or before”.
A black hole does not have a surface they are invisible.
Black holes are formed when a heavy weight star, about 10 times heavier than the sun.
There are total 88 constellations in the sky which are internationally recognized.
A telescope is an optical instrument used to see far remote objects like stars and planet.
Refractor telescope uses lenses to collect light and reflector telescope uses mirrors.
The sun emits dangerous radiations safety measure must be taken before viewing the sun.
Stars are huge balls of gas mainly consist of hydrogen and helium.
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